Conference 2: Scientific Findings about
Forgiveness
Presentation Information
(For
more information, please contact the researcher that conducted the study)
‘Til unforgiveness
doth us part: Forgiveness and conflict resolution in marriage
Frank Fincham, Ph.D.,
Distinguished Professor, Social and Clinical Psychology
University at
Conflict resolution is integral to a successful relationship. The resentment engendered by partner transgressions is likely to fuel couple conflict and impede successful conflict resolution whereas forgiveness may facilitate conflict resolution and set the stage for reconciliation. Two studies therefore examined whether forgiveness in married couples is associated with better conflict resolution. Both studies address two important limitations of forgiveness research, namely, reliance on a single source of data (usually the victim) for forgiveness and its correlates, and the assumption that forgiveness is unidimensional, ranging from unforgiveness at one pole to forgiveness at the other.
Study 1 examined couples in their third year of marriage and identified both unforgiveness (retaliation) and forgiveness (benevolence) dimensions. Husbands’ retaliatory motivation was a significant predictor of poorer wife reported conflict resolution whereas wives’ benevolence motivation predicted husbands’ reports of better conflict resolution. Examining longer term marriages, Study 2 identified three forgiveness dimensions (retaliation, avoidance and benevolence). Whereas wives’ benevolence again predicted better conflict resolution, for husbands,’ avoidance predicted wives’ reports of poorer conflict resolution. All findings were independent of both spouses’ marital satisfaction showing that forgiveness does not simply function as a proxy index of marital quality.
These studies provide initial data to support the theoretical argument that forgiveness cannot be understood completely by studying unforgiveness, just as marital quality cannot be fully understood by the study of negative feelings toward the partner (Fincham, 2000). The findings are discussed in terms of the importance of forgiveness for marital conflict, for understanding spouse goals, and for marital therapy. However, two factors, the moderate severity of reported transgressions and the nonrandom nature of the samples, caution against generalizing the results to clinic couples in the absence of research on clinic samples. Additional avenues for future research were also outlined.
Marital quality, forgiveness, empathy, and rumination:
A longitudinal analysis
Camillo Regalia, Ph.D., Professor of Social
Psychology
Universita Cattolica Del Sacro Cuore
This study investigated forgiveness in response to everyday marital transgressions. In particular, drawing on McCullough's (McCullough et al., 1998) social-psychological framework of forgiveness, the study examined the extent to which marital forgiveness is determined by social-cognitive (the offended spouse’s rumination and emotional empathy) and relational variables (the quality of the relationship in which the offence took place). The consequences forgiveness has for relationship quality were also explored.
In order to accurately analyze the direction of possible causal effects between the investigated variables, they were measured at two points separated by 6 months.
One hundred nineteen husbands and one hundred tweny-four wives from
long-and medium-term
marriages in north
Husbands and wives’ data were analyzed separately by carrying out a series of structural equation models. Similar paths were founds in both spouses. In particular, accordingly to findings obtained by McCullough (McCullough et al., 1998, Study 4) from university students, rumination and empathy concurrently predicted marital forgiveness one independently of the other. Forgiveness, in turn, concurrently affected marital quality. A reciprocal causal influence between forgiveness and marital quality was found longitudinally. Yet, the impact of forgiveness on marital quality appeared to be stronger than the reverse one.
Forgiveness as a strategy to maintain and repair
romantic relationships
Douglas Kelley, Ph.D., Associate Professor
of Communication Studies
This presentation provides information from three studies to examine how forgiveness is communicated within romantic relationships, most specifically marriage, and identifies the relational results of these communication strategies. The first study provides insights from interviews with 60 long-term married couples. Couples provided concrete examples of giving and receiving forgiveness in their own marriages. Specifically, they addressed why they forgave, how they forgave, and the importance of forgiveness in maintaining a marriage relationship over time.
The second and third studies examined survey data from individuals who responded to both closed- and open-ended questions regarding a time when forgiveness was used in a romantic relationship. The second study identified 5 types of forgiving communication reported by 187 adult members of romantic relationships: conditional, minimizing, discussion, nonverbal, and explicit. As expected, forgivers responded to severe relational transgressions with more conditional and less minimizing types of communication. In addition, variations in forgiveness communication were associated with relational outcomes. Partners who used conditional forms of communication were more likely to report relationship deterioration after the forgiveness episode. In contrast, forgivers who used explicit and nonverbal strategies were more likely to report relationship strengthening.
The third study examined data from 186 adults reporting on romantic relationships to see if the act of forgiveness resulted in relationship restoration after a severe transgression. Results indicated that forgiveness resulted in significant relationship recovery, although relationship quality rarely returned to pre-transgression levels. Additional results regarding the effects of transgression severity on forgiveness-seeking communication indicated that partners committing the most severe transgressions used more compensatory behavior and less humor as they sought forgiveness. Finally, it was determined that the quality of forgiveness-seeking tactics used by transgressing partners accounted for subsequent relationship changes. Explicit acknowledgement of the transgression and displays of nonverbal assurance were associated with more positive relationship changes.
Exploring gender differences in forgiveness
Ann Macaskill,
Ph.D.
Few studies have systematically considered sex differences
in situational forgiveness. Previous
studies of dispositional forgiveness (forgivingness) suggest that sex is
neither an important predictor of dispositional forgiveness nor a moderating
variable (Azar & Mullet, 2002; Girard &
Mullet, 1997; McCullough et al., 1998; McCullough, Worthington & Rachal, 1997). However,
a review of the studies that do focus on situational forgiveness and
include sex as one of the variables, suggests that there are some gender
differences in the way that males and females respond to situations where the
need for forgiveness arises. These studies all use hypothetical vignettes which
respondents are required to rate. The present study seeks to explore sex
differences in situational forgiveness where participants are asked to report
on a real, personal situation where the need for forgiveness has arisen. The
possibility of personality differences linked to forgiveness is also explored
as these have been reported in previous studies by
Rumination as a mediator of forgiveness and
depression: Differences based on gender and state-trait levels of analysis
Carol Brooks, M.A.
The second goal of this study was to examine gender differences in levels of forgiveness, rumination, and depression and to understand gender differences in associations among the three variables. The work of Nolen-Hoeksema (1991) and others has shown clear gender differences in rumination and depression. The relationship between forgiveness and gender is less clear at this time, however, there are also some suggestions that gender influences levels of forgiveness (Macaskill, Maltby, & Day, 2002; Maltby, Macaskill, & Day, 2001).
Forgiveness and reconciliation: A longitudinal analysis
Jo-Ann Tsang, Ph.D., Department of
Psychology and Neuroscience
I will introduce research completed by Dr. Michael McCullough, Dr. Frank Fincham, and myself that presents a longitudinal conceptualization of reconciliation and forgiveness as processes of linear change that take place in relationships that have been damaged by transgressive behavior. In a study involving 201 university students who had recently incurred painful interpersonal transgressions, we used three approaches to modeling causal hypotheses with longitudinal data to examine the relationships between forgiveness and reconciliation (structural equation modeling, panel analyses, and time-varying covariates within hierarchical linear modeling). These analyses demonstrated strong relationships between forgiveness and reconciliation both between persons and within persons. Some evidence was also consistent with the proposition that forgiveness and reconciliation have reciprocal causal effects.
A randomized clinical trial comparing Enright’s Model of Forgiveness to a spiritual model based on Alcoholics Anonymous
Kenneth Hart, Ph.D., Associate Professor,
Department of Psychology
A randomized clinical trial was described that pitted a group
counseling version of the Enright forgiveness program
against a new ‘Spiritual Forgiveness and Repentance’ (SPIRIT-FR) program, a
12-Step facilitation that engages clients in forgiveness and repentance-related
aspects of the first nine ‘steps’ of the spiritual growth program developed by
Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). Eighty-four angry but sober AA members were randomly
assigned to one of two manual-driven treatment programs, and approximately 30
completed each condition. Eight “front-line” addictions counselor lead a total
of 10 psychoeducational group workshops over a five-month
period (4 per condition). Process analyses revealed the average client received
a high dose of treatment. Furthermore, treatments were implemented as planned
and were different from each other. Dispositional and situational measures of
forgiveness and repentance together with measures of spirituality were
administered at baseline, immediately following treatment and at 5-month follow
up. Analyses involving group comparisons of amount of change from baseline to
follow up showed both treatments had desirable therapeutic effects on
situational forgiveness and generalized readiness to repent, and that clients
in the SPIRIT-FR treatment program benefited slightly more in terms of being
able to forgive their worst offender. New grudges were monitored during the
course of treatment, and both programs produced a reduction in the rate with
which they were grudges acquired. Both treatment programs were associated with
significant and sometimes sustained improvements on measures tapping closeness
to God, positive spiritual coping and the occurrence of a life-changing
spiritual experience. These data suggest it is possible to develop therapist
treatment manuals that specify uniquely different standardized forgiveness
interventions, and that proper delivery of both of these treatment programs can
improve levels of emotional, spiritual and social wellbeing in clinically
distressed samples of physically abstinent alcoholics who are attempting to
attain greater levels of ‘serenity.’
Forgiveness and communication in marital enrichment
and with parents
Study 1: Between August 1997 and July 2003, we followed about 150 early-married couples for over one year using three assessments. Two-thirds attended 9-hour dyadic consultations (1/3 focused on forgiveness and intimacy; 1/3 focused on communication and conflict management), and 1/3 were repeatedly assessed but received no intervention. I describe preliminary results. Study 2: In 2002-3, parents of children under 6 attended forgiveness workshops or were in a waiting list condition. I describe preliminary results
Forgiveness and reconciliation
Les Greenberg, Ph.D., Department of
Psychology
The results of a comparative outcome study comparing a twelve-session emotion-focused intervention with a psycho-educational group for treating emotional injuries, such as abandonment and betrayal by significant others, will be presented. This study was designed to investigate the role of letting go and forgiveness in resolving hurt and anger caused by emotional injuries by past caretakers or intimate partners. Thirty-four clients assessed to have significant emotional injuries from the past randomly assigned to a therapy or psycho-educational group completed treatment designed to deal with resolving emotional injuries. Treatment manuals were presented and a video-tape of competent intervention shown. Groups were compared at termination on measures of forgiveness, letting go, target complaints, interpersonal problems and self-esteem as well as reduction in depression, anger and general level of symptomatology. The relationship between degree of forgiveness and psychological distress was also presented. The relationship between client self-reports of emotional intensity and outcome on the following measures was also examined. Initial differences in the process of forgiveness in individual and couples therapy, was described with a focus on the differences created by the added need for reconciliation in couples.
Neural correlates of imaginal
forgiveness and unforgiveness: A functional magnetic
resonance imaging study in healthy human subjects
Pietro Pietrini, Ph.D.
Universita di Pisa
pietro.pietrini@bm.med.unipi.it
My lecture focused on the brain correlates of forgiveness and unforgiveness in humans. The main aim of the lecture was to present data obtained by using functional brain imaging methodologies to determine the cerebral correlates of forgiving and unforgiving in human subjects. These studies fall within a broader line of research developed over the last several years by our group and aimed at understanding the neural basis of human behavior and emotion. The attendees learned about novel experimental paradigms aimed at dissecting complex behavioral features (as those involved in forgiving) and about regional brain activity in relation to forgiving and unforgiving in human subjects. Furthermore, patterns of brain activity associated with forgiving and unforgiving was related to psychological features and personality traits and to peripheral hormonal response in the individual subjects.
The unique effects of forgiveness on health: An exploration of pathways
Kathleen Lawler, Ph.D.,
Department of Psychology
The University of Tennessee
Forgiveness has been shown to predict both physical and emotional health. This research confirms that association with self-reports of physical symptoms, number of medications used, quality of sleep, and several indices of psychological well-being. Four theoretical models of pathways through which forgiveness might lead to changes in health status were examined. The direct pathway of forgiveness on cardiovascular responses at rest and during the betrayal interview tested the impact of forgiveness on acute physiological reactivity. Three indirect pathways were also examined: interpersonal competence, spirituality, and reduction of negative affect. Eighty-one community adults participated in individual, betrayal interviews during which their blood pressure and heart rate were monitored. In addition, they completed a questionnaire packet of state and trait forgiveness, interpersonal competence such as conflict management, spirituality, and measures of negative affect (anxiety, depression, and anger). Regression models were computed for each pathway entered first, followed by the addition of forgiveness. All of the pathways were associated with both forgiveness and health. Inclusion of the pathways increased the variance accounted for, yet in every case forgiveness alone added substantial predictive power above the proposed factor. A total model indicated that all factors and forgiveness together accounted for the greatest amount of variance in health (r2 = .24, p<.0001), with forgiveness adding an additional 7.2% (trait) or 9.7% (state). Thus, forgiveness clearly is associated with a variety of health measures. While some of this effect may be carried by interpersonal competence, spirituality and reduction of negative affect, forgiveness adds uniquely to the prediction of health.
Forgiveness, emotion, and psychophysiology: Four experiments
Charlotte Witvliet,
Ph.D., Associate Professor, Department of Psychology
This presentation will disseminate the results of four psychophysiological experiments on forgiveness. These studies assess the effects of (1) unforgiving versus forgiving responses in victims, (2) seeking forgiveness and receiving begrudging, forgiving, or reconciling responses, (3) apology and restitution, and (4) forgiveness as well as punitive and restorative justice.
Assessing forgiveness
Warren Jones, Ph.D., Professor, Department
of Psychology
Forgiveness research has yielded an abundance of instruments. This research (n = 1579) compared available measures with respect to psychometric (e.g., validity, reliability) and itemmetric (e.g., type of item, reading difficulty, etc.) characteristics. Results indicated important differences between, but generally high comparability within categories (e.g., dispositional vs. offense-specific measures).
Beyond impulsiveness: An interdependence analysis of prosocial behavior in dyads
Eli Finkel, Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor, Social Psychology
Northwestern University
All individuals in long-standing dyadic relationships at times behave badly toward their partners. Based on an interdependence theoretic analysis, we suggest that the non-offending partner tends to experience impulses toward selfish or retaliatory responding to such treatment. These ideas inspired a line of research around a common question: When immediate self-interests and relationship interests conflict, what causes an individual to forego self-interested behavior in favor of behavior oriented toward relationship interests?
This talk presented the results of research exploring (a) the validity of our assumption that individuals experience gut-level impulses toward retaliation following rude or inconsiderate behavior by the partner, and (b) the motivational and ability factors increasing the likelihood that individuals will get beyond these self-oriented impulses in favor of prorelationship responding. Taken together, the results provide support for an interdependence theoretic analysis of conflict in close relationships, revealing factors that promote pro-relationship behaviors precisely in those circumstances when self-interested impulses are strongest.
Forgiveness as productive conflict
Roman Chteinbrekher
It is important that in order to realise forgiveness as an existential act the subject of the act overcome dependence on the source of offence. To do this people usually need special help as external accusation is quite a widespread phenomenon in the western culture.
Realising
forgiveness in each specific case is a complex multi-event process. Only in
rare cases it can be realised independently as it is characterised by a high
emotive level.
The main
idea of the research is to use technologies of constructing and productive
conflict development for the process of forgiveness; keeping conflict within
the process of its solving, where interpersonal conflicts are presented through
internal interaction of the corresponding personal substances ('I' – 'Another
I'). The research programme is planned to be fulfilled through designing a
theoretic model of forgiveness within the context of the productive conflict
dynamics.
The risk of forgiveness: Predicting women in domestic
violence shelters intentions to return to their partners
Kristi Gordon, Ph.D., Department of
Psychology
University of Tenneessee
Although practical considerations have been shown to be predictive of a woman either staying in an abusive relationship or returning to it, these considerations still might not provide the entire picture. A growing body of qualitative observations and empirical findings reveal the importance of attributional and emotional processes in reactions to domestic violence (Bartholomew, Henderson, & Dutton, 2000; Griffing et al, 2002; Katz, Arias, Beach, Brody, & Roman, 1995; Truman-Schramm et al., 2000; Watlington et al., 1999). Consequently, whereas it is likely that social and economic constraints play a role in a woman’s decision to return to an abusive relationship, it is also apparent that psychological and emotional factors may influence this decision as well.
One factor that may increase these women’s likelihood of continuing their relationships is forgiveness of their partners, a variable that has been little studied in this population. If a woman is able to forgive her partner’s behavior, then she might be more likely to desire to return to the relationship. A recent finding on dating violence indicates that young women who blame themselves for violent episodes are more likely to state that they would forgive violent episodes from their male partners and indicate a higher likelihood of staying in an abusive relationship (Katz, Street, & Arias, 1997).
Therefore, this study was designed to evaluate the role of forgiveness of actual abuse in women’s decisions to return to their partners from a domestic violence shelter. One hundred twenty-one women residing in both urban and rural domestic violence shelters filled out a series of questionnaires evaluating demographic information, severity of the violence, attributions for the violence, psychological constraints (or investment), forgiveness of their partner, and religious beliefs about forgiveness. Forgiveness was found to predict intention to return to partner over and above the other variables listed above, as were religious beliefs about forgiveness. Furthermore, forgiveness mediated the association between attributions and intentions to return. Limitations of this research, future directions for research, and implications for treatment were discussed.
The explanation step of forgiveness treatment
Fred DiBlasio,
Ph.D., Associate Professor,
When family members come together for therapy, they often want to focus on the mistakes and offenses of others. However, when offered an opportunity to disclose and focus on their own hurtful behaviors, people do impressive work at self-accountability that establishes a basis for understanding, good-will, and forgiveness. Using a videotape of actual clients struggling through one step (explanation) of a long forgiveness session, the presenter demonstrated how therapists can set the stage for the other forgiveness steps.
Marital Reconciliation: A qualitative study
Virginia Holeman,
Ph.D.
Asbury Theological Seminary
Toddy_Holeman@asburyseminary.edu
Unlike forgiveness the formal study of reconciliation is in its embryonic stage. I undertook an exploratory study of marital reconciliation to (1) develop a grounded theory of reconciliation, (2) to identify factors salient to reconciliation, and (3) to generate ideas for research and counseling.
This study used multiple case, in-depth, phenomenological interviewing to gain an understanding of marital reconciliation and the meaning that partners individually and conjointly attributed to that experience. A purposive sample of twelve couples (N=12) was obtained through referrals by clergy or clinicians. Each couple completed three ninety-minute, audio-taped interviews. The first two interviews were individual to allow participants to discuss the flow of events from the viewpoint of either the injured party or the transgressor. The final interview was conjoint and focused extensively on how the couple rebuilt their relationship. Interview data were coded using The Ethnograph v.5.0. A grounded theory of reconciliation developed from the themes and trends that emerged from interview analyses. Triangulation was achieved by participant-observation, analysis of narrative data, and comparing study conclusions with psychological and theological literatures on forgiveness and reconciliation.
I define reconciliation as the active commitment to the restoration of justice and trustworthiness by both injured party and transgressor so that their relationship may be transformed. I employ the metaphor of preparation for wilderness trekking as an organizational scaffold for the eight themes that emerged. This metaphor avoids as much as possible a linear interpretation (i.e., steps) of the themes. The eight “essential items” for trekking through the wilderness of reconciliation include the following: commitment to a transcendent spirituality, commitment to reconcile, the role of community or witnesses to reconciliation, individual maturation, forgiveness, repentance, rebuilding truth and trustworthiness, and the emergence of a new story about their relationship.
Forgiveness
is associated with psychological health, findings from the General Social
Survey
Joanna Maselko, M.S.
Harvard School of Public Health
Preliminary evidence
suggests that people’s ability to forgive may influence health. However,
further studies using robust methods are required to corroborate these
findings. Participants were part of the 1998 General Social Survey, a
nationally representative, cross-sectional study of 1,445 people (55% women),
aged 18-89. During a face-to-face interview, participants were asked, because
of their religious or spiritual beliefs, how often had they forgiven themselves
for things they had done wrong and how often had they forgiven those who hurt
them. Psychological distress, marital happiness, personal happiness and
self-rated health were also assessed. Statistical analyses were performed using
multiple logistic regression modeling controlling for potential confounders
including age, gender, race, marital status, religiosity and income.
Significant associations were found between the ability to forgive and psychological distress, marital happiness, and personal happiness, but not self-rated health. Persons in the highest forgiveness level were more likely to report being very happy compared with less forgiving participants (self forgiveness OR=1.83, 95%CI=1.26-2.66; forgiveness of others OR=1.69 95%CI=1.11-2.57). Among those who were married and highly forgiving, the odds of reporting being very satisfied with one’s marriage were 1.5 times that compared to the less forgiving group. Highly forgiving participants were also less likely to report psychological distress (self forgiveness OR=0.58, 95%CI=0.41-0.81, forgiveness of others OR=0.51, 95% CI=0.35-0.75). The ability to forgive oneself and others is strongly related to psychological distress, marital happiness and personal happiness, independent of several confounders. Given that the worldwide burden of disease due to mental illness is very high, a better understanding of the predictors of psychological health is crucial. This study has contributed to that effort.
Forgiveness and health: Findings from a national study
David Williams, Ph.D.
Institute for Social Research,
The presentation provided an overview of the findings from a
national telephone survey on the levels of forgiveness in the
Brain imaging of empathic and forgivability
judgments
Tom Farrow, Ph.D., Lecturer in Adult
Psychiatry
The
Forgiveness is likely to comprise multiple cognitive components. One such component may be the ability to judge the forgivability of another’s actions. Another component may be an ability to empathize with others, including an aggressor. Empathy consists of two components: an affective (visceral emotional reaction) and a cognitive (understanding of the conspecific’s behavior). Empathy and forgiveness are also both heavily dependent on the expression and interpretation of emotions. We used functional MRI to examine the neural correlates of making empathic and forgivability judgments. To our knowledge this is the first study to examine the functional anatomy of forgiveness. We posited that forgiveness incorporates judgments of another’s intentions, their emotional state and the forgivability of their actions. While it was not feasible to image subjects actively forgiving or empathizing in ‘real life’, we used narrative scenarios derived from everyday life, to probe the neural systems supporting these complex cognitive functions. We hypothesized that fronto-temporal regions would be differentially activated by these tasks. Method:-12 healthy control subjects and 13 patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) underwent fMRI scanning, while they engaged in tasks: (i) that involve speculation on another’s intention, (ii) that invoke empathy and (iii) involve making judgments of actions’ forgivability; each versus ‘baseline’ social reasoning judgments. A post-therapy fMRI scan followed a course of cognitive behavioral therapy with a forgiveness component. Results: Post-therapy, we found increased activation in brain regions predicted on the basis of foregoing work in healthy controls. These included significant left middle temporal gyrus activation in post-therapy response to empathy judgments and posterior cingulate gyrus activation in post-therapy response to forgivability judgments. Conclusions: Empathic and forgivability judgments activate specific regions of the human brain, which we propose contribute to social cohesion. The activation in these regions changed with symptom resolution in post traumatic stress disorder.
Forgiving the self: Conceptual issues and empirical findings
June Tangney, Ph.D.
Experts in forgiveness have emphasized the importance of forgiving the self, as well as others. Not infrequently, clinicians encounter clients who appear debilitated by unresolved feelings of shame, guilt, and remorse – very often out of proportion with the severity of transgression. It’s been suggested that in such cases, successful treatment involves helping the client process deep feelings of guilt and remorse, and to then constructively resolve those feelings via, for example, reparation and self-forgiveness.
By definition, clinicians see the most extreme cases. In our presentation, we examine the psychological and social implications of self-forgiveness in a non-clinical population. Is the capacity to forgive the self a psychological strength, much as the capacity to forgive others? Is self-forgiveness an element one might want to include in character education curricula?
Undergraduates in two independent studies, and friends and parents of participants in Study 2, completed the Multidimensional Forgiveness Inventory assessing the propensity to (1) forgive others, (2) ask for forgiveness from others, and (3) forgive the self. Replicating recent research, people inclined to forgive others are generally well-adjusted, agreeable, other-oriented individuals with a well-developed capacity for self-control. In contrast, people who easily forgive themselves appear to be rather self-centered, insensitive, narcissistic individuals, who come up short in the moral emotional domain, showing lower levels of shame, guilt, and empathic responsiveness. Relatively "shameless," they feel little remorse for their transgressions, little empathy for their victims, and little concern about what others think of them. Although quick to forgive themselves, they’re harsh in response to others’ transgressions.
These characteristics of self-forgiving individuals may cause distress to those around them. But self-forgivers are themselves unfazed. The propensity to forgive the self was positively correlated with self-reports of psychological well-being, and negatively correlated with internal psychological distress. Only clinical problems associated with a lack of self control (e.g., drug and alcohol abuse) were positively correlated with self-forgiveness. In short, self-forgivers may act “bad,” but they don't feel bad.
The process of forgiving childhood sexual abuse: A
prospective study
Jennie Noll, Ph.D., Associate Professor
Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical
Center
Sexually abused (N=55) and comparison (N=65) females (Mean age=20.41, SD=3.38) participating in a 10-year longitudinal, prospective study of the long-term impact of child sexual abuse responded to the Process of Forgiveness (POF) Scale concerning how they currently regard a perpetrator vis-à-vis how they have regarded this perpetrator in the past. The POF measures current feelings of Revenge, Anger, Conciliation, and a desire to Move On despite the trauma. Final scores on these dimensions were residualized for retrospective reports recounting a time when subjects felt the worst about the perpetrator. Final scores were related to outcome measures of psychological well-being.
For the total sample, Revenge was negatively correlated with self esteem. Anger was positively correlated with Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and dissociation and negatively correlated with maternal attachment. Conciliation was negatively related to PTSD and dissociation. The desire to Move On was positively related to self esteem and maternal attachment, and negatively related to depression, anxiety and dissociation.
Several group moderators emerged. Most notably, the relationship between anxiety and Conciliation was positive for the abused group, but negative, or near zero, for the comparison group. The relationship between maternal attachment and Conciliation is negative for the abused group and positive, or near zero, for the comparison group. These results suggest that reconciling with a sexual abuse perpetrator may not be a particularly healthy choice. Further, Conciliation may be encouraged in families where the maternal bond is less than optimal.
Those abused by their Biological Father (BF subgroup) scored higher on Revenge than did other abused subgroups and the comparison group. The BF subgroup scored significantly higher on the Anger than did all other groups. The BF subgroup scored lower on the Conciliation factor than the comparison group. These results suggest that forgiving sexual abuse by a biological father may be particularly difficult.
Affective processes and children’s propensity to forgive
Karen Neal, M.S.
Past research has demonstrated that forgiving is an affective process related to the ways in which an individual responds to anger inducing situations, as well as reactions of shame, guilt and pride. Research on propensity to forgive others, ask for forgiveness from others, and forgive the self has involved adult participants presented with adult scenarios.
To date, however, no study has explored the relationship between the propensity to forgive and emotional responses of children.
This is the first study to examine how children’s propensity to forgive is related to other affective responses. Thirty second graders, 20 fourth graders and 10 sixth graders completed developmentally appropriate scenario-based, self-reported measures involving situations common to children’s everyday lives. Children were recruited through parochial schools, a culturally diverse public elementary school, public libraries, and a home schooling network. The Multidimensional Forgiveness Inventory for Children (MFI-C) assessed children’s propensity to forgive others, ask for forgiveness from others, and forgive self. It further examined propensity to forgive based on severity of offense, relationship between victim and offender and intentionality of offender. The Anger Response Inventory for Children (ARI-C) assessed anger arousal, intentionality, cognitive and behavioral responses and long-term consequences. The Test of Self-Conscious Affect for Children (TOSCA-C) explored personal shame, guilt and pride.
Individual differences between the propensity to forgive others, ask for forgiveness from others and forgive the self will be analyzed and correlated to proneness to guilt, shame, pride and anger. Further, developmental differences in propensity to forgive and affective response between the three grade levels of children will be explored. Anecdotal responses from a past qualitative study of children from each grade level will be used to enhance the presentation and enrich understanding of how the forgiveness process develops in children during middle childhood.
The
propensity to forgive in the workplace
David
Bright, Ph.D.
Processes of
socialization influence the propensity to forgive, and identity groups within
organizations form are an important source of socialization. Though the
decision to forgive is an individual experience, it always occurs within a
relational frame; thus, the nature of relationships within a given frame should
influence the propensity to forgive. In
work organizations, relational frames are defined by one’s affiliation with a
work group or class. For example, strong distinctions exist in a unionized work
environment not only between labor and management, but also between seniority
groups within the union. In general, when offenses occur between coworkers, we
might expect that employees will be more forgiving toward offenders whom they
perceive as part of an “ingroup,” and that they will
be less forgiving toward those they see as part of an “outgroup.” These differences should be stronger among
those at the lower end of the power structure who often see themselves as more
oppressed. I propose to share preliminary results of a pilot study that
explores these suppositions. I have collected data in a unionized,
international trucking company. The research design employed both a case-based
survey (N=110) and open-ended, qualitative interviews (N=10). Initial analysis
may support the notion that employees of different work-based identity groups
differ in their propensity to forgive. Qualitative analysis also suggests
several propositions; for example, that union employees tend to be more
forgiving of each other than they are toward management, while managers are
generally more forgiving toward all workers.
Stanford
Forgiveness Projects- Research applications
Frederic
Luskin, Ph.D.
The Stanford Forgiveness Projects are a series of research projects that investigate the effectiveness of a specific forgiveness methodology. The initial project was a dissertation study and subsequent projects have looked at forgiveness in relationship to interpersonal hurt in a variety of situations. In each study people who had an unresolved hurt were taught to forgive in a group format through lecture, guided imagery, cognitive disputation and discussion. This presentation briefly reviewed some of the studies to show the efficacy of this particular forgiveness methodology.
Study One: Stanford Forgiveness Project: 259 community dwelling adults in the SF Bay Area, average age 41. Final assessment is 4 and one half months after the six week 90 minute session forgiveness training ended. Largest study to date on the training and measurement of the effects of interpersonal forgiveness. Recruitment was for any unresolved interpersonal hurt that did not include a current experience of physical or sexual violence. 70% decrease in feelings of hurt: 13% reduction in long- term experience of anger: 27% reduction in physical symptoms of stress (back ache, dizziness, sleeplessness, headache, stomach upset, etc.) 15% decrease in emotional experience of stress: 34% increase in forgiveness for person that hurt them: 105% more willing to forgive in other hypothetical situations.
Study Two: Stanford
Study Three: Stanford
Study Four: - The Effect of Forgiveness Training on Financial Service Advisors: Thirteen American Express Advisors and three Vice Presidents were given in workshop format a one day training in emotional competence focusing on forgiveness. Each advisor was offered follow up was through 4 conference calls over the subsequent year. First cohort completed. Reduction of 25% seen in stress. Participants showed a gain of 20% in positive emotion and an increase of 18.3% in gross sales. The rest of their market group showed a corresponding gain of 10.4% in gross sales over the year.
Transgressions in the workplace: Associations with
worker personality, productivity, physical health, and mental health
Jack Berry, Ph.D.
Transgressions frequently occur in the workplace. Recently, these have been studied as part of organizational justice. We examined the emotional responses of being unforgiving or forgiving. Workers (N=108) from four companies were surveyed about recent transgressions, their personality characteristics, self-reports of unforgiveness, forgiveness, and the degree to which they estimated that their productivity, work attendance, mental health, physical health, and work relationships had been affected by the transgression. Missed days and decrements in productivity were predicted by estimated decrements in mental health. Those, in turn, were predicted only by amount of unforgiveness and neuroticism. Decrements in physical health and workplace problems were not predicted significantly by unforgiveness, forgiveness, or personality. Unforgiveness and forgiveness were predicted by different patterns of predictors. In exploratory analyses, we found that co-workers who offended often did so through actionable offenses (e.g., harassment) while managers who offended usually did so through criticism, betrayal, and showing lack of appreciation. The study touches fields of vocational psychology, organizational justice, and positive psychology (notably forgiveness).
Forgiveness
is change
Michael McCullough, Ph.D., Associate
Professor, Departments of Psychology and Religious Studies
When most laypeople and researchers alike think about forgiveness, they assume that forgiveness involves a change of state. Some people invoke the notion that forgiveness involves an increase in love and compassion for a transgressor. Some suggest that forgiveness involves the cancellation of a debt. Others suggest that forgiveness involves a reduction in bitter, cold emotions by replacing them with positive, other-oriented emotions. Despite the differences in these definitions, they all share in common the notion that forgiveness involves a change of psychological state: When people forgive, they change.
However, few researchers have used conceptual or methodological tools that allow them to measure forgiveness as a process of change. Instead, most researchers’ efforts to measure forgiveness have involved measuring individuals’ thoughts, feelings, or behavioral inclinations regarding a transgressor at only a single point in time. Although such work is extremely valuable, by ignoring change it leaves an important piece in the forgiveness puzzle relatively unexplored.
In this presentation, I outlined the work that we have been doing to conceptualize forgiveness as a process of change that unfolds during the days and weeks following a transgression. I outlined one conceptual and statistical model that we have found helpful. This model has helped us shed light on the nature of forgiveness itself, its social-cognitive and relational determinants, and its consequences for relational functioning and psychological well-being. For example, this model has allowed us to study the role of empathy, attributions, and rumination about the transgression in fostering and deterring forgiveness, it has helped us to understand how forgiveness may foster reconciliation (and vice versa), and it has helped us to understand how forgiveness may (and may not) be related to physiological functioning and psychological well-being.
NEO-PI-R correlates of dispositional forgiveness
Karen Mansfield-Blair, M.S.
The present study examined dispositional facets of forgiveness and explored their relationships to the Big Five personality factors and facets. Participants (N=532) completed measures of forgivingness and Big Five personality traits. Overall, factors accounted for 11% to 36% of the variance in forgivingness, while facets accounted for 21% to 46%.
Most research to date has
investigated situational forgiveness,
and there is a paucity of research on dispositional
forgiveness at this time.
Data were collected across two administrations four weeks apart. Participants (N1 = 532 and N2 = 169) completed the Transgression Narrative Test of Forgivingness (TNTF; Berry et al., 2001) and the Multidimensional Forgivingness Scale (MFS; Toussaint, unpublished). The TNTF varies situations, intensity of offense, and level of relationship in an effort to simulate forgiveness across time and situations. The MFS utilizes seven scales that measure giving, receiving, and seeking forgiveness across self, others, and God. TNTF and MFS coefficient alphas ranged from .56 to .82 (Time 1) and .59 to .85 (Time 2). Test-retest correlations ranged from .61 to .85. The NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R; Costa & McCrae, 1992) was administered at time one only.
Results showed 20% of TNTF variance was accounted for by NEO-PI-R Big Five factors, while underlying facets accounted for 30%. Factors accounted for 36% of variance in forgiving others, 24% in feeling others’ and 24% in seeking others’ forgiveness. Facets accounted for 42% of variance in forgiving others, 29% in feeling others’, and 29% in seeking others’ forgiveness. Factors accounted for 11% of variance in forgiving God, 15% in feeling, and 17% in seeking God’s forgiveness. Facets accounted for 21% of variance in forgiving God, 25% in feeling, and 32% in seeking God’s forgiveness. Results showed 32% of forgiven self variance was accounted for by factors, while underlying facets accounted for 46%.
Forgiveness and the Five-Factor Model
Paul Mauger, Ph.D.
Costa and McCrae have stated,
”Since 1985, research using the NEO-PI [has] demonstrated that the same five
factors can account for the major dimensions in personality questionnaires...It
appears that these factors are indeed comprehensive.” (1992, p.14). The current
study relates the concept of forgiveness as well as guilt (forgiveness of
self), spiritual resources (for coping with life stress) and empathy (love) to
the Five Factor model of personality.
The participants in this study were 318 adults and 56 adolescents. They completed the Personal Survey 3.1 (Mauger, 1994) a self report questionnaire with 36 scales, including Forgiveness, Guilt and Spiritual Resources and Empathy scales. They also took the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO PI-R) a self report measure of the Five Factor Model of personality.
A principle components analysis was performed on the Personal Survey 3.1 data from 318 people. Six components were produced and then rotated to a varimax solution. The variable loadings and the order of the extraction of the components closely parallels the findings of McCrae and Costa (1989). The Forgiveness and the Guilt scales form part of different components, which seem to be the NEO Neuroticism and Agreeableness factors. This result indicates that Guilt is more of an intrapersonal behavior whereas Forgiveness is clearly an interpersonal behavior.
This impression is supported by correlations between the scales. The Empathy scale has a high correlation with the NEO Agreeableness domain and the Guilt scale has a moderate correlation with the NEO Neuroticism domain. Spiritual Resources and Forgiveness have low correlations with the Five-Factor Model domains.
The pattern of correlations with the Forgiveness scale and NEO subscales suggests that a person who forgives easily trusts other people more than most people do, doesn’t have problems with being painfully self conscious, exhibits less Impulsiveness and has more Self Discipline.
Does religiosity predict forgiving: Religiosity, big
five personality factors and trait vs. state forgiving
Jennifer Ripley, Ph.D., Associate
Professor, Department of Psychology
The very nature of religion, which can inspire both violence and acts of courageous altruism requires ever-increasing depth and specificity of study. Pargament (1997) has suggested that one of the reasons why studies involving religiosity are often puzzling is the lack of understanding of dimensions of religiosity. While many non-religious people are undoubtedly dedicated to the concept of forgiveness due to personal experience, ability to empathize, a desire to be altruistic, childhood modeling, or other previously studied predictors—there are case examples of forgiving inspired by religion. How much does religiosity matter in forgiving?
Three multi-site studies containing 2,554 participants investigated three hypotheses: Does religiosity contribute to trait and state-forgiving? If so, does it contribute beyond relevant big-five factor traits agreeableness and neuroticism? And is there an aspect of religiosity that is a better predictor of forgiving than other aspects?
Results indicated that religiosity has predictive value in both trait forgiving and situation-specific forgiving. Participants’ religious identity was significantly different on trait forgiving measures, with religious identities that most typically emphasize forgiving as significantly more forgiving than religions that typically emphasize forgiving less often. The studies shed light on the importance of understanding the nuanced meaning of religiosity with different groups of people. In all three studies, religiosity was uniquely predicting trait forgiving beyond neuroticism and agreeableness. This research showed more predictive value of religiosity than previous studies of the topic. The results consistently applied to a situation specific forgiving, with religiosity predicting 8-10% of the variance in situation-specific forgiving. The current studies indicated moderate amounts of predictive value for religious group identity, level of religious activity, religious commitment, and subjective spiritual intensity. For the more religiously committed subjective intensity was a stronger predictor of forgiving. For all others religious behavior was the strongest predictor of forgiving. Future research in the subject is discussed.
Forgiveness
and vengefulness in the context of adolescent religious and behavioral
development: A twin study of genetic and social influence
Lindon Eaves, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Human Genetics and Psychiatry
Aspects of adolescent spirituality and behavior were studied in a population-based sample of 2,224 school-aged twins and 2,844 mothers of twins. Twin correlations revealed that forgiveness and vengefulness are partly genetic, whereas spirituality is shaped by the family environment. Forgiveness is better understood in relations to pro-social behavior than religion.
Grudges toward God: A brief overview
Julie Exline, Ph.D.,
Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology
Case Western Reserve University
Grudges and forgiveness are
relevant not only in interpersonal relationships, but also in perceived
relationships between humans and God. When people face crises such as illness,
homelessness, or bereavement, they often attribute them to God and become angry
toward God in the process. This presentation provided a brief overview of
research on the following questions: What situational, religious, and
psychological factors predict whether people will experience significant
problems in their perceived relationships with God? What processes do people go
through in resolving negative feelings toward God, and how might these
processes parallel those of interpersonal forgiveness and reconciliation?
Research suggests that negative feelings toward God are common in the wake of
negative life events, even though many people do not find these feelings
morally acceptable. At an individual level, frequent or intensely negative
feelings toward God are associated with narcissistic entitlement, trait anger,
low self-esteem, depression, and insecure attachment. At a situational level,
negative feelings toward God are linked with seeing God as responsible for
devastating events, not feeling repaid by God, seeing God’s actions as
malevolent, punitive, illogical, or shaming, and feeling distant from God prior
to the incident. Many people report success in resolving negative feelings
toward God, and they sometimes suggest that their perceived relationship with
God improves as a result of the incident. On the other hand, anger toward God
can also prompt crises of faith and disbelief in God. Studies to date do not
suggest a single, common process by which individuals resolve negative feelings
toward God. Some individuals experience meaningful turning points that assist
in anger resolution, while for others anger dissipates gradually over time. It
is proposed that anger toward God is a promising new avenue for forgiveness
research, one with direct conceptual ties to interpersonal forgiveness.
Testing an intervention program for interpersonal forgiveness
Peter Hill, Ph.D., Professor, Department of
Psychology
Earlier research conducted by the authors investigated humility, perspective-taking, and empathy as predictors of forgiveness in a population of people who were involved in real-life disputes. Results indicted that all three variables correlated significantly with certain forgiveness measures. Based upon these preliminary findings, the authors developed an educational intervention aimed at promoting forgiveness by addressing each of the variables above as well as how to handle negative emotions (i.e., anger).
College student volunteers, who felt they had been personally wronged by someone else and for whom forgiveness for this wrong was an issue, served as subjects. Students assigned to the intervention group participated in four separate sessions (one session per week). Each session centered around one of the three variables found to be correlated with forgiveness in the previous research study, plus the session on handling emotions. The first session began with a series of surveys measuring forgiveness, humility, empathy, anger, and perspective-taking. Following the surveys, an intervention was introduced on one of the four variables studied, and post-test measures were taken of forgiveness and of the specific variable emphasized in the intervention. The following week, a new session began with a measure of the previous week’s discussion topic followed by an intervention on another variable. This pattern continued until all four forgiveness interventions had been presented. The control group was measured on forgiveness and all four variables during the first week’s session and again four weeks later.
Initial analyses indicated no significant differences between those who participated in the interventions and those who served as controls. Subjects in both the intervention and control conditions showed “improved” scores at the post-test on all four mediating variables. Given the small sample sizes (N = 47 in intervention group and N = 6 in control group), additional studies on the effectiveness of the interventions on promoting forgiveness are needed.
Victim offender dialogue in crimes of severe violence:
A multi-site study of programs in Texas and Ohio
Marilyn Armour,
Ph.D., Assistant Professor,
The
Although victim offender reconciliation or victim offender conferencing is recognized as a viable restorative justice initiative in property crimes and minor assaults, the application of the principles of restorative justice in crimes of severe violence, including murder has been slow to develop. This study represents the first empirical multi-site investigation of the impact of victim offender dialogue (VOD) on victims and survivors in the first two states to implement state-wide programs.
The sample consisted of 20 direct
victims or family survivors of direct victims each from
Results indicate exceptionally high levels of satisfaction with the process and outcome of the mediation; a total of 63 interviewees (80%) reported that the program had a profound effect on their lives including changed feelings for the offender (58%), personal growth and healing for the victim (60%), and strengthening of offender spirituality (62%). Reasons for meeting included a search for information and answers (58%) and a desire to benefit the victim (95%).
Both the
Implications include specialized training for mediators, the amending of current state crime victim compensation laws to allow reimbursement for the cost of victim-initiated VOD services with the responsible inmate, and choice in the intensity of the process needed for healing. More rigorous studies involving larger samples are required, however, before any conclusions can be drawn.
The use of compensation as a method for promoting
forgiveness in criminal contexts – the effect of source of compensation
Eleanor Wertheim, Ph.D., Associate
Professor, School of Psychological Science
La
Victims of criminal transgressions can receive compensation from various sources including: government compensation agencies, compensation orders instructing offenders to pay compensation, and as a result of victim-offender reconciliation programs. Although some research has been conducted into the effects of source of compensation on victims’ satisfaction with outcome, no research has looked at victims’ forgiveness of offenders in various compensatory contexts. Thus, the aims of this study were to investigate the effects of source of compensation on victim forgiveness and satisfaction with outcome. The effects of trait empathy on forgiveness were also examined. Seventy-five participants (age M=33.67 years, SD=14.28) read a standard scenario describing a non-violent property crime and rated their responses to the offender. Participants then read one of four outcome scenarios (no compensation, compensation from a government agency, compensation forced from the offender, and compensation provided voluntarily from the offender) to which participants were randomly assigned. Participants rated degree of forgiveness towards the offender, satisfaction with outcome of the process and rated perceived characteristics and response to the offender. All participants who received compensation were significantly more satisfied with outcome than participants who did not receive compensation. Participants who received compensation provided voluntarily by the offender were significantly more forgiving than participants in the remaining three conditions. There was a significant interaction effect between condition and trait empathy indicating that participants with high and low trait empathy reacted differently to the compensation conditions. Results were interpreted to indicate that conciliatory gestures by offenders are only likely to facilitate forgiveness in victims when such gestures are voluntary. Victims are also more likely to be satisfied with outcome when compensation is received than when no compensation is received, regardless of the source of compensation. Whether some compensatory procedures are more beneficial than others is contingent upon the aims of restorative justice.
Forgiveness among the virtues
Jack Berry, Ph.D.
We have argued that forgiveness occurs when affective systems associated with positive, love-based emotions dominate affective systems associated with unforgiveness. However, forgiveness is only one means of coping with transgressions. Other means include forbearance, accommodation, cognitive reframing, and seeking justice, which inhibit negative affects or their expression, but not by means of replacing negative with positive emotions. Although forgiveness is generally considered to be a moral virtue, so too are many of the alternative ways of coping with transgressions, such as justice, patience and forbearance.
Building upon our thinking about forgiveness, we propose that traditional moral virtues-socially valued affective and behavioral traits-can be classified into two broad functional classes. Warmth-based virtues (e.g., love, compassion, generosity) contribute to cooperation and