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Curriculum
Friday
October 24, 2003
Plenary
Session I: October 24, 2003 8:30a -- 10:00a
Martin Luther King III, honored keynote speaker
[NO TAPE OF THIS SESSION AVAILABLE]
Section A: October
24, 2003 -- 10:30a - 11:45a
Tape Code: SLR1-A [TAPE OF THIS SESSION AVAILABLE]
Til
unforgiveness doth us part: Forgiveness and conflict resolution in marriage
. Frank Fincham, Ph.D.
Conflict resolution is integral to a successful
relationship. The resentment engendered by partner transgressions is likely to
fuel couple conflict and impede successful conflict resolution whereas
forgiveness may facilitate conflict resolution and set the stage for
reconciliation. Two studies therefore
examined whether forgiveness in married couples is associated with better
conflict resolution. Both studies address two important limitations of
forgiveness research, namely, reliance on a single source of data (usually the
victim) for forgiveness and its correlates, and the assumption that forgiveness
is unidimensional, ranging from unforgiveness at one pole to forgiveness at the
other.
Study
1 examined couples in their third year of marriage and identified both
unforgiveness (retaliation) and forgiveness (benevolence) dimensions. Husbands
retaliatory motivation was a significant predictor of poorer wife reported
conflict resolution whereas wives benevolence motivation predicted husbands
reports of better conflict resolution. Examining longer term marriages, Study 2
identified three forgiveness dimensions (retaliation, avoidance and
benevolence). Whereas wives benevolence again predicted better conflict
resolution, for husbands, avoidance predicted wives reports of poorer
conflict resolution. All findings were independent of both spouses marital
satisfaction showing that forgiveness does not simply function as a proxy index
of marital quality.
These
studies provide initial data to support the theoretical argument that
forgiveness cannot be understood completely by studying unforgiveness, just as
marital quality cannot be fully understood by the study of negative feelings
toward the partner (Fincham, 2000). The findings are discussed in terms of the
importance of forgiveness for marital conflict, for understanding spouse goals,
and for marital therapy. However, two factors, the moderate severity of
reported transgressions and the nonrandom nature of the samples, caution
against generalizing the results to clinic couples in the absence of research
on clinic samples. Additional avenues for future research are also outlined.
Marital
quality, forgiveness, empathy, and rumination: A longitudinal analysis.
.. Camillo Regalia, Ph.D.
This
study investigated forgiveness in response to everyday marital transgressions.
In particular, drawing on McCullough (McCullough et al., 1998)s
social-psychological framework of forgiveness, the study examined the extent to
which marital forgiveness is determined by social-cognitive (the offended
spouses rumination and emotional empathy) and relational variables (the quality of the relationship
in which the offence took place). The consequences forgiveness has for
relationship quality were also explored.
In
order to accurately analyze the direction of possible causal effects between
the investigated variables, they were measured at 2 points separated by 6
months.
119
husbands and 124 wives from long-and medium-term marriages in north Italy completed
the study materials on both occasions. The materials asked them to recall the
most severe offense that their spouse had caused them during the last 6 months
and to rate the extent to which they had forgiven it on a 10-items scale. The
scale, progressively defined by 3 pilot studies conducted on 764 married
subjects, was composed of 2 dimensions (one positive and one negative), each of
them show adequate reliability (a ³ .75) and validity. Emotional empathy, rumination and marital quality
were assessed through existing scales.
Husbands
and wives data were analyzed separately by carrying out a series of structural
equation models. Similar paths were founds in both spouses. In particular,
accordingly to findings obtained by McCullough (McCullough et al., 1998, Study
4) from university students, rumination and empathy concurrently predicted
marital forgiveness one independently of the other. Forgiveness, in turn,
concurrently affected marital quality. A reciprocal causal influence between
forgiveness and marital quality was found longitudinally. Yet, the impact of
forgiveness on marital quality appeared to be stronger than the reverse one
Forgiveness
as a Strategy to Maintain and Repair Romantic Relationships
Douglas Kelley, Ph.D.
This
presentation provides information from three studies to examine how forgiveness
is communicated within romantic relationships, most specifically marriage, and
identifies the relational results of these communication strategies. The first study provides insights from
interviews with 60 long-term married couples.
Couples provided concrete examples of giving and receiving forgiveness
in their own marriages. Specifically,
they addressed why they forgave, how they forgave, and the importance of
forgiveness in maintaining a marriage relationship over time.
The
second and third studies examined survey data from individuals who responded to
both closed- and open-ended questions regarding a time when forgiveness was
used in a romantic relationship. The
second study identified 5 types of forgiving communication reported by 187
adult members of romantic relationships: conditional, minimizing, discussion,
nonverbal, and explicit. As expected,
forgivers responded to severe relational transgressions with more conditional
and less minimizing types of communication.
In addition, variations in forgiveness communication were associated
with relational outcomes. Partners who
used conditional forms of communication were more likely to report relationship
deterioration after the forgiveness episode.
In contrast, forgivers who used explicit and nonverbal strategies were
more likely to report relationship strengthening.
The
third study examined data from 186 adults reporting on romantic relationships
to see if the act of forgiveness resulted in relationship restoration after a
severe transgression. Results indicated that forgiveness resulted in
significant relationship recovery, although relationship quality rarely
returned to pre-transgression levels. Additional results regarding the effects
of transgression severity on forgiveness-seeking communication indicated that
partners committing the most severe transgressions used more compensatory
behavior and less humor as they sought forgiveness. Finally, it was determined that the quality of
forgiveness-seeking tactics used by transgressing partners accounted for
subsequent relationship changes.
Explicit acknowledgement of the transgression and displays of nonverbal
assurance were associated with more positive relationship changes.
Tape Code: SLR2-A [TAPE OF THIS SESSION
AVAILABLE]
Exploring
Gender Differences in Forgiveness
. Ann Macaskill, Ph.D.
Few
studies have systematically considered sex differences in situational
forgiveness. Previous studies of
dispositional forgiveness (forgivingness) suggest that sex is neither an
important predictor of dispositional forgiveness nor a moderating variable
(Azar & Mullet, 2002: Girard & Mullet, 1997; McCullough et al., 1998;
McCullough, Worthington & Rachal, 1997).
However a review of the studies
that do focus on situational forgiveness and include sex as one of the
variables, suggests that there are some gender differences in the way that
males and females respond to situations where the need for forgiveness arises.
These studies all use hypothetical vignettes which respondents are required to
rate. The present study seeks to explore sex differences in situational
forgiveness where participants are asked to report on a real, personal
situation where the need for forgiveness has arisen. The possibility of
personality differences linked to forgiveness is also explored as these have
been reported in previous studies by Berry, Worthington, O'Connor, Parrot &
Wade (2002) and Maltby, Macaskill & Day, (2000) amongst others. A sample of 214 undergraduate students, (106 male and 108 female) in a university in the UK completed The Enright
Forgiveness Inventory (Subkoviak et al.,1995), the Abbreviated Form of the
Revised Eysenck Personality Inventory (Francis, Brown & Philipchalk, 1992),
and behavioral measures on response
style and vengeance seeking. The events
were similar and were rated as equally hurtful for both sexes although overall
women were found to be more forgiving than men. There were gender differences
with regard to personality factors and types of aggressive impulses related to
the event. There were no sex
differences in vengeance seeking. The reported sex differences are compared
with established sex differences in aspects of social interaction reported in
the social psychology literature to postulate explanations for these observed
differences.
Rumination
as a mediator of forgiveness and depression:
Differences based on gender and
state-trait
levels of analysis
.. Carol Brooks, M.A.
Worthington and Wade (1999) proposed a model of
forgiveness in which ruminating on a hurtful event and the perpetrator leads to
unforgiveness. Once rumination on the
negative emotions of unforgiveness begins, it likely will continue and lead to
depression (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991).
While forgiveness and rumination are both related to depression
(Freedman & Enright, 1996; Hebl & Enright, 1993; Lyubomirsky &
Nolen-Hoeksema, 1993; Maltby, Macaskill, & Day, 2001; Morrow &
Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990; Roberts, Gilboa, & Gotlib, 1998), the association
between forgiveness and depression might, in large part, be a function of
rumination (Worthington & Wade, 1999).
Hence, the first goal of the current investigation was to examine the
extent to which rumination mediated the association between forgiveness and
depression.
The
second goal of this study was to examine gender differences in levels of
forgiveness, rumination, and depression and to understand gender differences in
associations among the three variables.
The work of Nolen-Hoeksema (1991) and others has shown clear gender
differences in rumination and depression.
The relationship between forgiveness and gender is less clear at this
time, however, there are also some suggestions that gender influences levels of
forgiveness (Macaskill, Maltby, & Day, 2002; Maltby, Macaskill, & Day,
2001).
Forgiveness
and Reconciliation: A Longitudinal Analysis
.. Jo-Ann Tsang, Ph.D.
I
will introduce research completed by Dr. Michael McCullough, Dr. Frank Fincham,
and myself that presents a longitudinal conceptualization of reconciliation and
forgiveness as processes of linear change that take place in relationships that
have been damaged by transgressive behavior. In a study involving 201
university students who had recently incurred painful interpersonal
transgressions, we used 3 approaches to modeling causal hypotheses with
longitudinal data to examine the relationships between forgiveness and reconciliation
(structural equation modeling, panel analyses, and time-varying covariates
within hierarchical linear modeling). These analyses demonstrated strong
relationships between forgiveness and reconciliation both between persons and
within persons. Some evidence was also consistent with the proposition that
forgiveness and reconciliation have reciprocal causal effects.
Tape Code: SLR3-A [TAPE OF THIS SESSION
AVAILABLE]
A Randomized Clinical Trial
Comparing Enrights Model of Forgiveness to a Spiritual Model
Based on Alcoholics
Anonymous
Kenneth
Hart, Ph.D.
A randomized clinical trial will be described that
pitted a group counseling version of the Enright forgiveness program against a
new Spiritual Forgiveness and Repentance (SPIRIT-FR) program, a 12-Step
facilitation that engages clients in forgiveness and repentance-related aspects
of the first nine steps of the spiritual growth program developed by Alcoholics
Anonymous (AA). Eighty-four angry but
sober AA members were randomly assigned to one of two manual-driven treatment
programs, and approximately 30 completed each condition. Eight front-line
addictions counselor lead a total of 10 psychoeducational group workshops over
a five-month period (4 per condition).
Process analyses revealed the average client received a high dose of
treatment. Furthermore, treatments were
implemented as planned and were different from each other. Dispositional and situational measures of
forgiveness and repentance together with measures of spirituality were
administered at baseline, immediately following treatment and at 5-month
followup. Analyses involving group
comparisons of amount of change from baseline to followup showed both
treatments had desirable therapeutic effects on situational forgiveness and
generalized readiness to repent, and that clients in the SPIRIT-FR treatment
program benefited slightly more in terms of being able to forgive their worst
offender. New grudges were monitored
during the course of treatment, and both programs produced a reduction in the
rate with which they were grudges acquired.
Both treatment programs were associated with significant and sometimes
sustained improvements on measures tapping closeness to God, positive spiritual
coping and the occurrence of a life-changing spiritual experience. These data
suggest it is possible to develop therapist treatment manuals that specify
uniquely different standardized forgiveness interventions, and that proper
delivery of both of these treatment programs can improve levels of emotional,
spiritual and social wellbeing in clinically distressed samples of physically
abstinent alcoholics who are attempting to attain greater levels of serenity.
Forgiveness
and Communication in Marital Enrichment and with Parents
Everett Worthington, Jr., Ph.D.
Study 1: Between August 1997 and July 2003, we
followed about 150 early-married couples for over one year using three
assessments. Two-thirds attended 9-hour dyadic consultations (1/3 focused on
forgiveness and intimacy; 1/3 focused on communication and conflict
management), and 1/3 were repeatedly assessed but received no intervention. I
describe preliminary results. Study 2: In 2002-3, parents of children under 6
attended forgiveness workshops or were in a waiting list condition. I describe
preliminary results
Forgiveness
and Reconciliation
Les Greenberg, Ph.D.
The
results of a comparative outcome study comparing a twelve-session
emotion-focused intervention with a psycho-educational group for treating
emotional injuries, such as abandonment and betrayal by significant others,
will be presented. This study was designed to investigate the role of letting
go and forgiveness in resolving hurt and anger caused by emotional injuries by
past caretakers or intimate partners. Thirty-four clients assessed to have
significant emotional injuries from the past randomly assigned to a therapy or
psycho-educational group completed treatment designed to deal with resolving
emotional
injuries. Treatment manuals will be presented
and a video-tape of competent intervention shown. Groups will be compared at
termination on measures of forgiveness, letting go, target complaints,
interpersonal problems and self-esteem as well as reduction in depression,
anger and general level of symptomatology. The relationship between degree of
forgiveness and psychological distress will also be presented. The relationship
between client self-reports of emotional intensity and outcome on the following
measures is also examined. Initial differences in the process of forgiveness in
individual and couples therapy, will be described with a focus on the
differences created by the added need for reconciliation in couples.
Tape Code: CLR1-A [TAPE OF THIS SESSION
AVAILABLE]
How to Facilitate Forgiveness Among Divorced Individuals
.. Mark Rye, Ph.D.
Divorced
individuals often believe they were wronged by their ex-spouse. Consequently, many divorced individuals
maintain feelings of anger and hostility toward their ex-spouse long after the
divorce has been finalized (Wallerstein, 1986). Maintaining these feelings may have a negative effect on physical
health and psychological adjustment (Bursik, 1991). In addition, conflict between divorced parents may have negative
effects on children (Amato & Keith, 1991).
One way to cope with divorce is through forgiveness. Research has found that forgiveness of an
ex-spouse relates to better mental health (Ashleman, 1997; Bursik, 1991; Reed,
1998, as cited in Enright, 2001), better family relationships (Ashleman, 1997),
and a more integrative approach to coping (Mazor, Batiste-Harel, & Gampel,
1998).
This
presentation will describe the development, implementation, and evaluation of
two versions of an eight-session forgiveness group intervention for divorced
individuals. In the religiously
integrated version, group leaders encouraged participants to draw upon their
religious / spiritual beliefs while working on forgiveness. In the secular version, group leaders did
not introduce religious / spiritual concepts.
Otherwise, the content of the two programs was similar. Using the framework provided in the interventions,
strategies will be discussed for the following: 1) facilitating discussion of the wrongdoing that divorced
individuals have experienced, 2)
teaching cognitive-behavioral strategies for coping with feelings of anger, 3)
educating about the definition and process of forgiveness, 4) teaching clients how to support themselves
and others through the forgiveness process, 5) using ritual to facilitate
forgiveness, 6) integrating religion / spirituality into forgiveness
interventions, and 7) preventing relapse prevention. This presentation will also describe the findings of an outcome
evaluation of both versions of the forgiveness intervention. Some of the unique challenges faced by
divorced individuals in the process of forgiveness will be explored.
Tape
Code: CLR2-A [TAPE OF THIS SESSION AVAILABLE]
Stanford
Forgiveness Projects: Teaching Forgiveness
. Frederick Luskin, Ph.D.
The
Stanford Forgiveness Projects utilizes a forgiveness methodology based on the
practices of Behavioral Medicine.
Guided imagery, stress management, mindfulness, cognitive disputation,
changing the narrative are all used to foster forgiveness. This presentation will present an overview
of the methodology based on the following nine steps.
1.
Know exactly how you feel about what happened and be able to articulate what
about the situation is not OK. Then,
tell a couple of trusted people about your experience.
2.
Make a commitment to yourself to do what you have to do to feel better. Forgiveness is for you and not for anyone
else. No one else even has to know
about your decision.
3.
Understand your goal. Forgiveness does
not necessarily mean reconciliation with the person that upset you, or
condoning of their action. What you are
after is to find peace. Forgiveness can
be defined as the peace and understanding that come from blaming that which
has hurt you less, taking the life experience less personally, and changing
your grievance story.
4.
Get the right perspective on what is happening. Recognize that your primary distress is coming from the hurt
feelings, thoughts and physical upset you are suffering now, not what offended
you or hurt you two minutes or ten years ago.
5.
At the moment you feel upset practice the Positive Emotion Refocusing Technique
(P.E.R.T.) to soothe your bodys flight or fight response.
6.
Give up expecting things from other people, or your life, that they do not
choose to give you. Recognize the
unenforceable rules you have for your health or how you or other people must
behave. Remind yourself that you can
hope for health, love, friendship and prosperity and work hard to get
them. However, you will suffer when you
demand these things occur when you do not have the power to make them happen.
7.
Put your energy into looking for another way to get your positive goals met
than through the experience that has hurt you.
I call this step finding your positive intention. Instead of mentally replaying your hurt seek
out new ways to get what you want.
8.
Remember that a life well lived is your best revenge. Instead of focusing on your wounded feelings, and thereby giving
the person who caused you pain power over you, learn to look for the love,
beauty and kindness around you.
9.
Amend your grievance story to remind you of the heroic choice to forgive.
Section B:
October 24, 2003 -- 1:30a-2:45p
Tape Code: SLR1-B [TAPE OF THIS SESSION
AVAILABLE]
Neural Correlates of Imaginal Forgiveness and
Unforgiveness: a Functional Magnetic Resonance
Imaging Study in Healthy Human Subjects
.. Pietro Pietrini, Ph.D.
pietro.pietrini@bm.med.unipi.it
My lecture will focus on the brain correlates of
forgiveness and unforgiveness in humans. The main aim of the lecture will be to
present data obtained by using functional brain imaging methodologies to
determine the cerebral correlates of forgiving and unforgiving in human
subjects. These studies fall within a broader line of research developed over
the last several years by our group and aimed at understanding the neural basis
of human behavior and emotion. The attendees will learn about novel
experimental paradigms aimed at dissecting complex behavioral features (as
those involved in forgiving) and about regional brain activity in relation to
forgiving and unforgiving in human subjects. Furthermore, patterns of brain
activity associated with forgiving and unforgiving will be related to
psychological features and personality traits and to peripheral hormonal
response in the individual subjects.
The Unique
Effects of Forgiveness on Health: An
Exploration of Pathways
. Kathleen
Lawler, Ph.D.
Forgiveness
has been shown to predict both physical and emotional health. This research confirms that association with
self-reports of physical symptoms, number of medications used, quality of
sleep, and several indices of psychological well-being. Four theoretical models of pathways through
which forgiveness might lead to changes in health status were examined. The direct pathway of forgiveness on
cardiovascular responses at rest and during the betrayal interview tested the
impact of forgiveness on acute physiological reactivity. Three indirect pathways were also
examined: interpersonal competence,
spirituality, and reduction of negative affect. Eight-one community adults participated in individual, betrayal
interviews during which their blood pressure and heart rate were
monitored. In addition, they completed
a questionnaire packet of state and trait forgiveness, interpersonal competence
such as conflict management, spirituality, and measures of negative affect
(anxiety, depression, and anger).
Regression models were computed for each pathway entered first, followed
by the addition of forgiveness. All of
the pathways were associated with both forgiveness and health. Inclusion of the pathways increased the
variance accounted for, yet in every case forgiveness alone added substantial
predictive power above the proposed factor.
A total model indicated that all factors and forgiveness together
accounted for the greatest amount of variance in health (r2 = .24,
p<.0001), with forgiveness adding an additional 7.2% (trait) or 9.7%
(state). Thus, forgiveness clearly is
associated with a variety of health measures.
While some of this effect may be carried by interpersonal competence,
spirituality and reduction of negative affect, forgiveness adds uniquely to the
prediction of health.
Forgiveness,
Emotion, and Psychophysiology: Four Experiments
.. Charlotte Witvliet, Ph.D.
This
presentation will disseminate the results of four psychophysiological
experiments on forgiveness. These studies assess the effects of (1) unforgiving
versus forgiving responses in victims, (2) seeking forgiveness and receiving
begrudging, forgiving, or reconciling responses, (3) apology and restitution,
and (4) forgiveness as well as punitive and restorative justice.
Tape Code: SLR2-B [TAPE OF THIS SESSION
AVAILABLE]
Assessing
Forgiveness
.. Warren Jones, Ph.D.
Forgiveness
research has yielded an abundance of instruments. This research (n = 1579) compared available measures with respect
to psychometric (e.g., validity, reliability) and itemmetric (e.g., type of
item, reading difficulty, etc.) characteristics. Results indicated important differences between, but generally
high comparability within categories (e.g., dispositional vs. offense-specific
measures).
Beyond
impulsiveness: An interdependence analysis of prosocial behavior in dyads
Eli
Finkel, Ph.D.
All
individuals in long-standing dyadic relationships at times behave badly toward
their partners. Based on an interdependence theoretic analysis, we
suggest that the non-offending partner tends to experience impulses toward
selfish or retaliatory responding to such treatment. These ideas inspired
a line of research around a common question: When immediate self-interest and
relationship interests conflict, what causes an individual to forego
self-interested behavior in favor of behavior oriented toward relationship
interests?
This
talk presents the results of research exploring (a) the validity of our
assumption that individuals experience gut-level impulses toward retaliation
following rude or inconsiderate behavior by the partner, and (b) the
motivational and ability factors increasing the likelihood that individuals
will get beyond these self-oriented impulses in favor of prorelationship
responding. Taken together, the results provide support for an interdependence
theoretic analysis of conflict in close relationships, revealing factors that
promote pro-relationship behaviors precisely in those circumstances when
self-interested impulses are strongest.
Forgiveness
as productive conflict
... Roman Chteinbrekher
It is important that in order to realise
forgiveness as an existential act the subject of the act overcome dependence on
the source of offence. To do this people usually need special help as external
accusation is quite a widespread phenomenon in the western culture.
Realising forgiveness in each specific case is
a complex multievent process. Only in rare cases it can be realised
independently as it is characterised by a high emotive level.
The main idea of the research is to use
technologies of constructing and productive conflict development for the
process of forgiveness; keeping conflict within the process of its solving,
where interpersonal conflicts are presented through internal interaction of the
corresponding personal substances ('I' 'Another I'). The research programme
is planned to be fulfilled through designing a theoretic model of forgiveness
within the context of the productive conflict dynamics.
Tape Code: SLR3-B [TAPE OF THIS SESSION
AVAILABLE]
The Risk of
Forgiveness: Predicting Women in Domestic Violence Shelters Intentions to
Return
to their
Partners
Kristi Gordon, Ph.D.
Although
practical considerations have been shown to be predictive of a woman either
staying in an abusive relationship or returning to it, these considerations
still might not provide the entire picture.
A growing body of qualitative observations and empirical findings reveal
the importance of attributional and emotional processes in reactions to
domestic violence (Bartholomew, Henderson, & Dutton, 2000; Griffing et al,
2002; Katz, Arias, Beach, Brody, & Roman, 1995; Truman-Schramm et al.,
2000: Watlington et al., 1999).).
Consequently, whereas it is likely that social and economic constraints
play a role in a womans decision to return to an abusive relationship, it is
also apparent that psychological and emotional factors may influence this
decision as well.
One
factor that may increase these womens likelihood of continuing their
relationships is forgiveness of their partners, a variable that has been little
studied in this population. If a woman is able to forgive her partners
behavior, then she might be more likely to desire to return to the
relationship. A recent finding on dating violence indicates that young women
who blame themselves for violent episodes are more likely to state that they
would forgive violent episodes from their male partners and indicate a higher
likelihood of staying in an abusive relationship (Katz, Street, & Arias,
1997).
Therefore,
this study was designed to evaluate the role of forgiveness of actual abuse in
womens decisions to return to their partners from a domestic violence shelter.
121 women residing in both urban and rural domestic violence shelters filled
out a series of questionnaires evaluating demographic information, severity of
the violence, attributions for the violence, psychological constraints (or
investment), forgiveness of their partner, and religious beliefs about
forgiveness. Forgiveness was found to predict intention to return to partner
over and above the other variables listed above, as were religious beliefs about
forgiveness. Furthermore, forgiveness
mediated the association between attributions and intentions to return. Limitations of this research, future
directions for research, and implications for treatment are discussed.
The
Explanation Step of Forgiveness Treatment
Fred DiBlasio, Ph.D.
When
family members come together for therapy, they often want to focus on the
mistakes and offenses of others. However, when offered an opportunity to disclose and focus on
their own hurtful behaviors, people do impressive work at self-accountability
that establishes a basis for understanding, good-will, and forgiveness. Using a videotape of actual clients struggling
through one step (explanation) of a long
forgiveness session, the presenter plans to demonstrate how therapists
can set the stage for the other forgiveness steps. Whereas the presentation will focus on the one explanation step,
handouts of journal articles will help the participant understand the entire
step-by-step session.
Marital
Reconciliation: A Qualitative Study
Virginia Holeman, Ph.D.
Toddy_Holeman@asburyseminary.edu
Unlike
forgiveness the formal study of reconciliation is in its embryonic stage. I
undertook an exploratory study of marital reconciliation to (1) develop a
grounded theory of reconciliation, (2) to identify factors salient to
reconciliation, and (3) to generate ideas for research and counseling.
This
study used multiple case, in-depth, phenomenological interviewing to gain an
understanding of marital reconciliation and the meaning that partners
individually and conjointly attributed to that experience. A purposive sample of twelve couples (N=12)
was obtained through referrals by clergy or clinicians. Each couple completed three ninety-minute,
audiotaped interviews. The first two interviews were individual to allow
participants to discuss the flow of events from the viewpoint of either the
injured party or the transgressor. The
final interview was conjoint and focused extensively on how the couple rebuilt
their relationship. Interview data were
coded using The Ethnograph v.5.0. A
grounded theory of reconciliation developed from the themes and trends that
emerged from interview analyses.
Triangulation was achieved by participant-observation, analysis of
narrative data, and comparing study conclusions with psychological and
theological literatures on forgiveness and reconciliation.
I
define reconciliation as the active commitment to the restoration of justice
and trustworthiness by both injured party and transgressor so that their
relationship may be transformed. I employ the metaphor of preparation for
wilderness trekking as an organizational scaffold for the eight themes that
emerged. This metaphor avoids as much
as possible a linear interpretation (i.e., steps) of the themes. The eight essential items for trekking
through the wilderness of reconciliation include the following: commitment to a
transcendent spirituality, commitment to reconcile, the role of community or
witnesses to reconciliation, individual maturation, forgiveness, repentance,
rebuilding truth and trustworthiness, and the emergence of a new story about
their relationship. Ideas for future
research and clinical intervention conclude the presentation
Tape Code: CLR1-B [TAPE OF THIS SESSION
AVAILABLE]
Faces of
Forgiveness: Intersubjectivity and the Process of Change
Steve Sandage, Ph.D.
Intersubjectivity
and the motif of the face are employed to facilitate interdisciplinary
(psychology, theology, spirituality) integration and clinical and community
application. The motif of the face is
engaged with respect to research on the facial expression of emotion, as well
as spiritual and theological understandings.
Cultural considerations help contextualize forgiveness.
Tape Code: CLR2-B [TAPE OF THIS SESSION
AVAILABLE]
Forgiveness
is shaped & nurtured over a lifetime
William Carroll, Ph.D.
Masters
and disasters of forgiveness can be predicted by: PTSD, and subconscious
habits; awareness, reflection and dialogue on cultural influences; models
imitated and appropriated; relational existence vs. autonomous existence;
positive vs. negative communication patterns; and neural connections and pathways
developed by daily communication.
Awareness
of economic, political and media influences which: increase fear linked to
basic needs; increase emotional hijacking by blocking the neocortex thinking
and judging pathway which drives fight, flight or freeze reflexes; link
refractory periods; dulls awareness by speed, rapid change, repetition, noise,
jarring juxtaposition, and pornography; and conflates reality with illusion.
How
we think, feel and act are grounded in values from models. Appropriated models influence acceptance or
non-acceptance of forgiving and being forgiven. Relationship foundation is either complementary and
interdependent or self-centered and self-sufficient individualism. Self-centered individualism undermines
forgiving relationships.
Negative
or positive communications shape and nurture intrapersonal and interpersonal
communication. Negative communication:
beginning - turning away or against bids; during - criticism, contempt,
defensiveness, stonewalling, and flooding; turning away to attack/define
and turning against to emotionally disengage. Positive communication: soft startup, accept influence, turning
toward, positive bids given and received 90% plus, de-escalate, soothe, and
rebound positively. Positive
communication communicates appreciation (respect, affection, favor, praise), an
attitude of gratitude.
Progress
toward forgiveness requires appropriate model, discipline, practice, and
incorporating antidotes by neural connections and pathways: loving kindness,
wishing well and happiness for other, opposed to anger and hatred; compassion,
wanting and delighting in other's freedom from pain and suffering, opposed to
cruelty; rejoicing, happy for the well-being of others, opposed to jealousy;
and equanimity, enabling a peace zone, opposed to attachment and aversion. Some
issues can never be solved; accept and respect with a dash of humor.
Using
Transpersonal Theory to Understand Forgiveness in Psychotherapy
Janet Lewis, M.D.
Forgiveness
involves a sense of felt unity with a person who has hurt one. But from the
standpoint of development, a sense of unity can be regressive or progressive,
unhealthy or healthy. A transpersonal theory of development, as described in
the writings of Ken Wilber and others, is presented as a framework for
understanding the psychological health or pathology of different forms of
forgiveness.
Within
transpersonal theory, psychological-spiritual development is considered to have
three basic stages- the prepersonal, the personal, and the transpersonal. The
prepersonal is the stage before the development of a well-functioning ego,
where merger is experienced and boundary-distorting defenses such as
idealization, splitting, and projection are employed.
The
personal stage is characterized by a fairly well-functioning ego and the
conflict of social conformity vs. authenticity predominates.
In
the transpersonal stage, the ego is transcended and is included within a larger
context. This occurs through the individuals identification with something
larger than the self.
In
this presentation, a case study is used to illustrate the dangers of
forgiveness undertaken with prepersonal or personal stage motivations. The
effects of trauma on this process are discussed, as trauma reintroduces
prepersonal functioning, necessitating the achievement of a personal stage
before being able to stably occupy a transpersonal position. In this healing
process, development itself is recapitulated and can be furthered. The central
paradox in getting to forgiveness is defined as the need for the patient to
recognize the offending other as a separate person first, before there can be
any healthy sense of unity.
Lastly,
three possible ways, (among many,) that individual insight oriented
psychotherapy can help a patient to transcend the self and identify with a
larger context, thereby making healthy forgiveness possible, are presented. The
distinction between transpersonal experience and stable transpersonal
functioning is described.
Faith
Obstacles to Forgiveness: Constructions of G-d, Human Nature and the Death
Penalty
... Harry
Coverston, Ph.D.
The
use of the death penalty in American jurisprudence is the ultimate test of
Americans' willingness to forgive.
Debate over the death penalty inevitably features use of religious
ideation. Both sides frequently cite passages from Hebrew and Christian
scriptures and church teachings as their authorities.
Studies
have shown that worldviews manifest in attitudes about forgiveness and
punishment are often strongly informed by religious elements. Primary among
these elements are human understandings of the deity and corresponding notions
of human nature. Understandings of G_d in which judgment and punishment feature
prominently often accompany constructions of human nature seen in terms of
depravity and deservedness of punishment. Correspondingly, understandings of
G-d focusing on relationship and human/divine connectedness are more likely to
feature forgiveness.
This
paper will present sociologist Andrew Greeley's analysis of National Opinion
Research Center data validating two opposing visions of G-d and human nature
posited by David Tracey. In the Analogical vision, human beings are seen in
terms of likeness to the divine and focuses on communal ties among human beings
and a higher willingness to forgive rather than punish. The Dialectic vision
sees humanity and the divine as radically separated and human beings as
individuals alienated from G-d and one another often seeing offenders as
deserving only of punishment. This distinction explains differences between
regions of the country strongly identified with dialectic religious identities
(the Bible Belt/ Death Belt) versus regions where the death penalty is not
currently used.
The
second aspect of this paper is the role of atonement theology in understanding
the urge to punish versus the willingness to forgive, particularly the
Anselmian construct of substitutionary atonement requiring blood sacrifice. It
will consider how theological understandings inform understandings of
punishment and forgiveness and how such understandings may prove obstacles to
the ability of many to forgive.
Section C:
October 24, 2003 3:00p-4:15p
Tape Code: SLR1-C [TAPE OF THIS SESSION
AVAILABLE]
Forgiveness is Associated with Psychological Health,
Findings from the General Social Survey
. Joanna Maselko, M.S.
Preliminary evidence suggests that peoples ability
to forgive may influence health. However, further studies using robust methods
are required to corroborate these findings. Participants
were part of the 1998 General Social Survey, a nationally representative,
cross-sectional study of 1,445 people (55% women), aged 18-89. During a
face-to-face interview, participants were asked, because of their religious or
spiritual beliefs, how often had they forgiven themselves for things they had
done wrong and how often had they forgiven those who hurt them. Psychological
distress, marital happiness, personal happiness and self-rated health were also
assessed. Statistical analyses were performed using multiple logistic regression
modeling controlling for potential confounders including age, gender, race,
marital status, religiosity and income.
Significant
associations were found between the ability to forgive and psychological
distress, marital happiness, and personal happiness, but not self-rated health.
Persons in the highest forgiveness level were more likely to report being very
happy compared with less forgiving participants (self forgiveness OR=1.83,
95%CI=1.26-2.66; forgiveness of others OR=1.69 95%CI=1.11-2.57). Among those who were married and highly
forgiving, the odds of reporting being very satisfied with ones marriage were
1.5 times that compared to the less forgiving group. Highly forgiving
participants were also less likely to report psychological distress (self
forgiveness OR=0.58, 95%CI=0.41-0.81, forgiveness of others OR=0.51, 95%
CI=0.35-0.75). The ability to forgive
oneself and others is strongly related to psychological distress, marital
happiness and personal happiness, independent of several confounders. Given
that the worldwide burden of disease due to mental illness is very high, a
better understanding of the predictors of psychological health is crucial. This
study has contributed to that effort.
Forgiveness
and health: Findings from a national study
.. David Williams, Ph.D.
The
presentation will provide an overview of the findings from a national telephone
survey on the levels of forgiveness in the United States and on the association
between multiple dimensions of forgiveness and self-reported indicators of
physical and mental health. The
analyses also document that the association between forgiveness and health is independent
of other measures of religious involvement as well as psychosocial factors such
as anger and self-esteem.
Brain
Imaging of Empathic and Forgivability Judgments
Tom Farrow, Ph.D.
Forgiveness
is likely to comprise multiple cognitive components. One such component may be
the ability to judge the forgivability of anothers actions. Another component
may be an ability to empathise with others, including an aggressor. Empathy
consists of two components: an affective (visceral emotional reaction) and a
cognitive (understanding of the conspecifics behaviour). Empathy and
forgiveness are also both heavily dependent on the expression and
interpretation of emotions. We used functional MRI to examine the neural
correlates of making empathic and forgivability judgements. To our knowledge
this is the first study to examine the functional anatomy of forgiveness. We
posited that forgiveness incorporates judgements of anothers intentions, their
emotional state and the forgivability of their actions. While it was not
feasible to image subjects actively forgiving or empathising in real life, we
used narrative scenarios derived from everyday life, to probe the neural
systems supporting these complex cognitive functions. We hypothesised that
fronto-temporal regions would be differentially activated by these tasks. Method:-12 healthy control subjects and
13 patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) underwent fMRI scanning,
while they engaged in tasks: (i) that involve speculation on anothers
intention, (ii) that invoke empathy and (iii) involve making judgments of
actions forgivability; each versus baseline social reasoning judgments. A
post-therapy fMRI scan followed a course of cognitive behavioural therapy with
a forgiveness component. Results: Post-therapy,
we found increased activation in brain regions predicted on the basis of
foregoing work in healthy controls. These included significant left middle
temporal gyrus activation in post-therapy response to empathy judgments and
posterior cingulate gyrus activation in post-therapy response to forgivability
judgments. Conclusions: Empathic and
forgivability judgements activate specific regions of the human brain, which we
propose contribute to social cohesion. The activation in these regions changed
with symptom resolution in PTSD.
Tape Code: SLR2-C [TAPE OF THIS SESSION
AVAILABLE]
Forgiving
the Self: Conceptual Issues and Empirical Findings
June Tangney, Ph.D.
Experts
in forgiveness have emphasized the importance of forgiving the self, as well as
others. Not infrequently, clinicians
encounter clients who appear debilitated by unresolved feelings of shame, guilt,
and remorse very often out of proportion with the severity of
transgression. Its been suggested that
in such cases, successful treatment involves helping the client process deep
feelings of guilt and remorse, and to then constructively resolve those
feelings via, for example, reparation and self-forgiveness.
By
definition, clinicians see the most extreme cases. In our presentation, we examine the psychological and social
implications of self-forgiveness in a non-clinical population. Is the capacity to forgive the self a
psychological strength, much as the capacity to forgive others? Is self-forgiveness an element one might
want to include in character education curricula?
Undergraduates
in two independent studies, and friends and parents of participants in Study 2,
completed the Multidimensional Forgiveness Inventory assessing the propensity
to (1) forgive others, (2) ask for forgiveness from others, and (3)
forgive the self. Replicating recent
research, people inclined to forgive others are generally well-adjusted,
agreeable, other-oriented individuals with a well-developed capacity for
self-control. In contrast, people who
easily forgive themselves appear to be rather self-centered, insensitive, narcissistic
individuals, who come up short in the moral emotional domain, showing lower
levels of shame, guilt, and empathic responsiveness. Relatively "shameless," they feel little remorse for
their transgressions, little empathy for their victims, and little concern
about what others think of them.
Although quick to forgive themselves, theyre harsh in response to
others transgressions.
These
characteristics of self-forgiving individuals may cause distress to those
around them. But self-forgivers are
themselves unfazed. The propensity to
forgive the self was positively correlated with self-reports of psychological
well-being, and negatively correlated with internal psychological
distress. Only clinical problems
associated with a lack of self control (e.g., drug and alcohol abuse) were
positively correlated with self-forgiveness.
In short, self-forgivers may act bad, but they don't feel bad.
The Process
of Forgiving Childhood Sexual Abuse: A Prospective Study
. Jennie Noll, Ph.D.
Sexually
abused (N=55) and comparison (N=65) females (Mean age=20.41, SD=3.38)
participating in a 10-year longitudinal, prospective study of the long-term
impact of child sexual abuse responded to the Process of Forgiveness (POF)
Scale concerning how they currently regard a perpetrator vis-ΰ-vis how they
have regarded this perpetrator in the past. The POF measures current feelings
of Revenge, Anger, Conciliation, and a
desire to Move On despite the trauma.
Final scores on these dimensions were residualized for retrospective
reports recounting a time when subjects felt the worst about the
perpetrator. Final scores were related
to outcome measures of psychological well-being.
For
the total sample, Revenge was negatively correlated with self esteem. Anger was positively correlated with PTSD
and dissociation and negatively correlated with maternal attachment. Conciliation was negatively related to PTSD
and dissociation. The desire to Move On
was positively related to self esteem and maternal attachment, and negatively
related to depression, anxiety and dissociation.
Several
group moderators emerged. Most notably,
the relationship between anxiety and Conciliation was positive for the abused
group, but negative, or near zero, for the comparison group. The relationship between maternal attachment
and Conciliation is negative for the abused group and positive, or near zero,
for the comparison group. These results suggest that reconciling with a sexual
abuse perpetrator may not be a particularly healthy choice. Further, Conciliation may be encouraged in
families where the maternal bond is less than optimal.
Those
abused by their Biological Father (BF subgroup) scored higher on Revenge than
did other abused subgroups and the comparison group. The BF subgroup scored significantly higher on the Anger than did
all other groups. The BF subgroup
scored lower on the Conciliation factor than the comparison group. These results suggest that forgiving sexual
abuse by a biological father may be particularly difficult.
Affective
Processes and Childrens Propensity to Forgive
.. Karen Neal, M.S.
Past
research has demonstrated that forgiving is an affective process related to the
ways in which an individual responds to anger inducing situations, as well as
reactions of shame, guilt and pride. Research on propensity to forgive others,
ask for forgiveness from others, and forgive the self has involved adult
participants presented with adult scenarios.
To
date, however, no study has explored the relationship between the propensity to
forgive and emotional responses of children.
This
is the first study to examine how childrens propensity to forgive is related
to other affective responses. 30 second
graders, 20 fourth graders and 10 sixth graders completed developmentally
appropriate scenario-based, self-report measures involving situations common to
childrens everyday lives. Children
were recruited through parochial schools, a culturally diverse public
elementary school, public libraries, and a home schooling network. The Multidimensional Forgiveness Inventory
for Children (MFI-C) assessed childrens propensity to forgive others, ask for
forgiveness from others, and forgive self.
It further examined propensity to forgive based on severity of offense,
relationship between victim and offender and intentionality of offender. The Anger Response Inventory for Children
(ARI-C) assessed anger arousal, intentionality, cognitive and behavioral
responses and long-term consequences.
The Test of Self-Conscious Affect for Children (TOSCA-C) explored
personal shame, guilt and pride.
Individual
differences between the propensity to forgive others, ask for forgiveness from
others and forgive the self will be analyzed and correlated to proneness to
guilt, shame, pride and anger.
Further, developmental differences in propensity to forgive and
affective response between the three grade levels of children will be explored. Anecdotal responses from a past qualitative
study of children from each grade level will be used to enhance the
presentation and enrich understanding of how the forgiveness process develops
in children during middle childhood.
Tape Code: SLR3-C [TAPE OF THIS SESSION
AVAILABLE]
The propensity to forgive in the workplace
. David Bright, Ph.D.
Processes of socialization influence the propensity
to forgive, and identity groups within organizations form are an important
source of socialization. Though the decision to forgive is an individual
experience, it always occurs within a relational frame; thus, the nature of
relationships within a given frame should influence the propensity to
forgive. In work organizations,
relational frames are defined by ones affiliation with a work group or class.
For example, strong distinctions exist in a unionized work environment not only
between labor and management, but also between seniority groups within the
union. In general, when offenses occur between coworkers, we might expect that
employees will be more forgiving toward offenders whom they perceive as part of
an ingroup, and that they will be less forgiving toward those they see as
part of an outgroup. These
differences should be stronger among those at the lower end of the power
structure who often see themselves as more oppressed. I propose to share
preliminary results of a pilot study that explores these suppositions. I have
collected data in a unionized, international trucking company. The research
design employed both a case-based survey (N=110) and open-ended, qualitative
interviews (N=10). Initial analysis may support the notion that employees of
different work-based identity groups differ in their propensity to forgive.
Qualitative analysis also suggests several propositions; for example, that
union employees tend to be more forgiving of each other than they are toward
management, while managers are generally more forgiving toward all workers.
Stanford Forgiveness Projects- Research Applications
Frederick Luskin, Ph.D.
The
Stanford Forgiveness Projects are a series of research projects that
investigate the effectiveness of a specific forgiveness methodology. The initial project was a dissertation
study and subsequent projects have looked at forgiveness in relationship to
interpersonal hurt in a variety of situations.
In each study people who had an unresolved hurt were taught to forgive
in a group format through lecture, guided imagery, cognitive disputation and
discussion. This presentation will
briefly review some of the studies to show the efficacy of this particular
forgiveness methodology.
Study
One: Stanford Forgiveness Project: 259 community dwelling adults in the
SF Bay Area, average age 41. Final
assessment is 4 and one half months after the six week 90 minute session forgiveness
training ended. Largest study to date
on the training and measurement of the effects of interpersonal
forgiveness. Recruitment was for any
unresolved interpersonal hurt that did not include a current experience of
physical or sexual violence. 70% decrease in feelings of hurt: 13% reduction in long- term experience of
anger: 27% reduction in physical symptoms of stress (back ache, dizziness,
sleeplessness, headache, stomach upset, etc.)
15% decrease in emotional experience of stress: 34% increase in forgiveness for person that
hurt them: 105% more willing to forgive
in other hypothetical situations.
Study
Two: Stanford Northern Ireland HOPE1 Project: 5 women ( 2 Catholics and 3 Protestants) who had an immediate
family member murdered were brought to Stanford and spent a week learning how
to forgive. Four of the women had their
sons murdered. Final assessment is 6 months after forgiveness training
ended. 60% decrease in feelings of
hurt: 25% decrease in long-term
experience of anger: 42% decrease in
depression: 50% decrease in emotional
experience of stress: 28% increase in
optimism: 40% increase in forgiveness
towards person that hurt them:
Study
Three: Stanford Northern Ireland HOPE2
Project: 17 men and women (9
Catholic and 8 Protestants) who had an immediate family member murdered spent
one week at Stanford learning how to forgive.
37% reduction in feelings of hurt:
11% decrease in long-term experience of anger: 20% decrease in depression:
12% decrease in emotional experience of stress: 35% decrease in physical symptoms of
stress: 12% increase in physical
vitality (energy level, appetite, and sleep patterns).
Study Four: - The Effect of Forgiveness Training on
Financial Service Advisors: Thirteen American Express Advisors and three Vice Presidents were given in workshop format a one day
training in emotional competence focusing on forgiveness. Each advisor was offered follow up was
through 4 conference calls over the subsequent year. First cohort completed.
Reduction of 25% seen in stress.
Participants showed a gain of 20% in positive emotion and an increase of
18.3% in gross sales. The rest of
their market group showed a corresponding gain of 10.4% in gross sales over the
year.
Transgressions
in the Workplace: Associations with Worker Personality, Productivity, Physical
Health, and
Mental Health
Jack Berry, Ph.D.
Transgressions frequently occur in the workplace. Recently, these have been studied as part of organizational justice. We examined the emotional responses of being unforgiving or forgiving. Workers (N=108) from four companies were surveyed about recent transgressions, their personality characteristics, self-reports of unforgiveness, forgiveness, and the degree to which they estimated that their productivity, work attendance, mental health, physical health, and work relationships had been affected by the transgression. Missed days and decrements in productivity were predicted by estimated decrements in mental health. Those, in turn, were predicted only by amount of unforgiveness and neuroticism. Decrements in physical health and workplace problems were not predicted significantly by unforgiveness, forgiveness, or personality. Unforgiveness and forgiveness were predicted by different patterns of predictors. In exploratory analyses, we found that co-workers who offended often did so through actionable offenses (e.g., harassment) while managers who offended usually did so through criticism, betrayal, and showing lack of appreciation. The study touches